Definition Essay - Defining Reality -- Expository Definition Essays

Definition Essay – Defining Reality The distinction that causes the most trouble in philosophy is the distinction between "appearance" and "reality," between what things seem to be and what they are. The painter wants to know what things seem to be, the practical man and the philosopher want to know what they are. . . . but if reality is not what appears, have we any means of knowing whether there is any reality at all? - Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy In everyday life people distinguish between the real size of the sun and the size it appears to be, between the natural components of a cloud (a concentration of water droplets) and what the cloud seems to be (some fleecy substance?), and so on. However, when arguing of the reality of such things, how can any phy...

The Collective Unconscious Essays -- essays research papers

The famous psychologist Carl Jung believed that the universe and all of its inhabitants are made up of a measureless web of thought called the collective unconscious, it’s suggests that the collective unconscious is rooted in the genetic code of every living thing. This collective unconscious is evident in an individual’s personality, which is comprised of five separate personalities blended together; these are called archetypes. In Jungian psychology, there are five different archetypes: the shadow, anima, animus, persona and the wise old man or mana-personality. Each influences a different aspect of one’s personality. These influences vary from one individual to another depending upon the dominance of each archetype. In the play Hamlet, each one of these archetypes manifests itself as a dominant personality trait within one of the play’s main characters. It is also apparent that the collective unconscious itself is an underlying theme which exists throug hout the events in the play. Although, these concepts have only recently been discussed and proposed as a psychological theory, it appears that they pre-date Jung by three hundred years. I will provide proof of this hypothesis through parallels between Jung’s work and the play. Carl Jung believed that the structure of the human psyche is comprised of three main parts: the conscious, personal unconscious and the collective unconscious (refer to figure 1). The conscious is basically the function or activity which maintains the relation of psychic contents with the ego or one’s state of awareness. Personal unconscious consists of experiences or memories that can be recalled by an individual, either through the will of the person or by employing special technique (e.g. Hypnosis). The final part of the psyche is the collective unconscious, which can be considered something that links us all together. It is the reservoir of our experiences as a species, a kind of knowledge the human race are all born with of which we can never be directly conscious of (refer to figure 2). The collective unconscious influences all of our experiences and behaviors, particularly the emotional ones; however, we are only aware of it indirectly, as it can be revealed by looking at various facets of those influences. Those influences are the archetypes (refer to figure 3). The first archetype that we see in the play is that of the per... ...ge. If the collective community unconsciously thinks that a change is needed, a large and almost catastrophic event will occur leaving the community in a momentary sense of chaos. Order is restored through the emergence of a single individual with the ability to rectify the state of flux. This is seen through the events in Act 5, Scene 2 where Fortinbras enters the hall where the duel took place, is faced with the deaths of Gertrude, Claudius, Hamlet, and Laertes. Chaos ends and order is restored when Fortinbras is named monarch of Denmark during Hamlet’s final breath. There is strong evidence that all major Jungian archetypes are portrayed through key characters within the play. The manifestation of the archetypes as major characters within the play occurred hundreds of years prior to the development of Jungian theory. As well, the collective unconscious is developed throughout the play, culminating in the final chaotic scene; however, a single individual re-institutes normalcy. It is feasible that the concept of archetypes and a collective unconscious was understood much earlier and possibly Jung could have been influenced by their unconscious in the development of his theories.

Topshop Strategy

Top shop marketing plan essay Executive SummaryTop Shop is one of the leading retail brands known globally for its most up-to-date styles in clothing and other fashion accessories. Earlier only a low price clothing outlet primarily for the teenagers, Top Shop is now the hottest fashion clothing brand with its stores keeping the latest fashions and the exclusive and extraordinary designs that appeal to all age and socio-economic groups.The management has very carefully followed a perfect blend of cutting edge, highly fashionable styles with affordability by introducing new products and services in various countries worldwide under the new company called ‘TOPSHOP plus'.Realizing the importance of doing so, after repositioning itself, Top Shop will embark upon a carefully planned journey of simultaneous product and market development strategy as ‘TOPSHOP plus' Be it Kate Moss's exclusively introduced designer range, in-store ambiance, Style Advisor service or its sponsorship s for the young and aspiring fashion gurus, Top Shop stands out today amongst many other competing brands. The management must, however, bear in mind that while expanding into so many countries with its every increasing range of products, it would have to keep a very strict check on its supply chain.Furthermore, regular innovations are a key to success for this mighty brand. For as this growing company approaches maturity, it would run a greater risk of the competitors catching up until it commits to innovations that are hard to imitate or are at least time and resource consuming. Terms of ReferenceAim of the ReportThe report covers discusses ‘TopShop plus' an extension of the Arcadia chains conception and launch as an expansion to strategic measures taken since the time that transformed itself from being an ordinary low price clothing retailer for the teenagers to a hot fashion clothing hub for all age groups.It also brings forth various marketing promotions being undertaken by the company to maintain its current position and to gain on the market share. The in depth analysis helps understanding how each of its activities have been attempting to attract customers through provision of maximum value to them and not to the company only. The later part also suggests that despite being and extraordinary fashion retailer, there are a few areas where Top Shop would need to pay special attention in order to ensure long term growth and a sustainable bottom line.Scope of the ReportAs one of the businesses of the Arcadia Group, ‘TopShop plus' strategic marketing analysis has been provided in this report keeping in view all of its products and services. The services that make the shopping experience more of an entertainment are just as important a factor in Top Shop's success as are products that directly produce revenue for it. In a nutshell, the report analyzes Top Shop as a whole through its separate products and services which also act as tools for market ing for the company. 1.The CompanyWith an initial reputation of being a tacky low price clothing outlet, Top shop ‘plus' has now earned the fame of a leading store when it comes to fashion clothing. The success, however, came only with a change in its strategy; by going ‘upscale'. Top Shop ‘plus' will be one clothing retailer that stocks the most up-to-date fashion clothes and accessories before any of its competitors does in the market. Whereby the major focus earlier on was on price competitiveness, Top Shop ‘plus' products will arrive first in the market and will be of high quality and very low comparative price.Over time, Top Shop ‘plus' will come to be known not only as just the fashion accessory provider but much rather a trend setter especially with its in-house designer brands and those exclusively introduced and introduced by fashion industry leaders. Due to its various marketing efforts, innovations in the business and exclusive services for i ts customers, it is now the biggest and the most differentiated name in the fashion industry especially when it comes to retailers in the field. 2.The Fashion Retail Market at a GlanceA study showed that even while cutting down on other areas, the European consumers hardly cut down on their expenditure on clothes (Mintel, August 2003). Even when the year on year sales in the fashion industry slowed down in 2000 and 2001, the change was not as drastic as had been predicted by certain observers. During that period, Top Shop and some of its competitors caught up on the opportunity to provide fashion clothing at an affordable price.Few of the major players that have dominated the fashion retail industry with a reputation to preempt the latest catwalk designs include Top Shop, H;M. and Zara. Now, Top Shop is amongst the very few names that account for more than 60% of the total consumer expenditure on fashion clothing and accessories. 3. Current Marketing Activities:Arcadia group plc und er Top Shop has been engaged various marketing and promotional activities. The most major ones and their analysis with reference to the company's corporate & marketing strategy follow this section. . 1 New ImageLong ago, when Top Shop was only known as a low price clothing outlet, the increasing focus of the buyers on trendiness and the readiest availability of the new fashion accessories forced the managed to rethink its strategic position. Right at that time, the management decided to reposition Top Shop from being a discount seller to a hot trend setter brand. Initially, Top shop relied on copying the latest catwalk designs and releasing them in the market before any other competitor like H& M and Zara.Gradually however, while the other fashion brands focused following the same copying the strategy, Top Shop entered into the arena of introducing new self made designs initially under a brand named Unique. Since that time, Top Shop has been living the repute of being the high style up-to-date fashion god of the high street. Consider the following perceptual map taking bullet 1 as its initial and 2 as its later positioning with respect to certain other competing brands such as Marks & Spencer, H&M etc. Refer to 1c and 2c as the composite competitor positioning before and after Top Shop's transformation. . 2 High Price-High Quality Fashion ClothingPreviously, for quite some years, Top Shop had to experience low revenues and even lower profits primarily because of its excessive focus on price competitiveness. Later a shift its strategy helped the bottom line to sore up. The major factor contributing to such a result was the chain's new focus on female fashion clothing and accessories that it brought into the market before its competitors even if it had to pay more to the suppliers. Such a strategy assisted it in becoming a market leader where it came to the latest trends and fashion in the women-ware.It is also important to note that Top Shop offers products at usually a very low price even as low as three times comparative to the competitors. But because the customers get access to the latest fashion only here, the revenues at Top Shop are only positively affected. More so, with its discount offers such as those especially designed for the students, it can rest assured that even the young age groups can afford the trendy ware that it has to offer to its customers. Additionally, because ‘fashion' is this chain's selling point, the customers are often ready to pay a premium price for certain designs.In this manner, it is able to maintain an upscale image as well as smooth revenues. 3. 3 Celebrity EndorsementsKate Moss Collection by Top Shop has been another feather in the retailer's cap. This endorsement by the British super model would act to strengthen Top Shop's image as being first class in fashion clothing (Appendix 1). Furthermore, the hype and publicity that the mere fact of the supermodel introducing her own designer collectio n through Top Shop created would certainly reap long term benefits for the company. We intend to use same model for the brand awareness and project topshop‘plus' as a high end business.Primarily, it would further Top Shop's liking amongst the other celebrities who might have otherwise preferred some other retail brand. But with Kate Moss endorsing it, there is greater likelihood of the brand gaining on its recognition in the general public as well as the celebrity masses. Also, such endorsements are essentially important after the management's concern for maintaining Top Shop's fashion-focused upscale image. 3. 4 Discount offersOne of the most surprising consumer promotions offered by Top Shop is the student discount (Appendix 2).This proved to be a great success but with topshop ‘plus' because of Top Shop plus is an upscale fashion oriented global retail chain. However, such a discount can serve for Top Shop, two important purposes. Firstly, it would attract the young f ashion oriented members of the target market who have lower purchasing power comparative to any of its other targeted customers. Along side this, promotions of this nature would allow the management to explore opportunities related to the younger segment of the market in the long run by giving it first hand knowledge of the segment's preferences.Additionally, their preference for shopping at Top Shop today may continue to their later age thereby ensuring a smooth flow of revenues for the company. Secondly, and very importantly, such a discount offer is especially fruitful in times of recession. Where the sales of other upscale retail outlets may be going down due to high prices, keeping the young souls dressed in up-to-date trendy outfits obtainable at a special discounted price would prevent the sales going down beyond a certain acceptable level. 3. Membership cardsOne of the most distinguished promotions of this cutting edge fashion retailer is its exclusive membership for its cus tomers. The membership allows access to its superior fashion advice service, ‘Style Advisor' whereby its most loyal customers can reach to thousands of Style Advisors round the globe while seeking a hassle free shopping experience (Appendix 3). The membership can be rightly thought of as a promotion to ensure customer loyalty by inculcating in them a sense of pride being associated with Top Shop.Additionally, with preferred treatment in all the stores worldwide, such an initiative can ensure that the customers would help keeping the revenue flow smooth for this mighty fashion trend setter. 3. 7 Online PresenceIt is widely thought that a website primarily serves as a source of advertising and promotion for a brand. Additionally however, it also works effectively well in generating sales especially for an organization that has customers spread globally. Such a purpose is only served if the website allows the visitors to make order based purchases. Top Shop's online presence fits the aforementioned purposes.It not only contains information on the upcoming fashion accessories but also some very useful tips and fashion advice. This can actually be an attraction for Top Shop's target audience who seek such services to be available such that they can access it any time and with the least time spending. Along with its tailored -size ordering available online, the company can ensure least possible hassle caused to the customers (Appendix 4). Furthermore, the website would continuously allow Top Shop to be an online sales point for the young students whose life styles make such buying rather convenient.Although one cannot ignore the importance of its brick and mortar existence as well, the services available through its website may certainly add a lot of value to the business. It presence on Facebook and Twitter is another step forward in promoting itself far and wide. 3. 8 Sponsorships for the Rising Fashion TalentAs a gesture of its commitment to fashion and tre ndsetting, Top Shop has been closely associated with various initiatives for supporting and promoting young and aspiring fashion gurus. It provides title sponsorship for the Graduate Fashion Week.Also, it does a lot of work in support of the London Fashion Week and for launching the careers of various young designers through the endowment of a special award. Through this award many well known names such as Hussain Chalayan, Clements Riberio and several others earned repute in the fashion industry. Such activities do two important things for Top Shop ‘plus' directly and indirectly. Firstly, it promotes the brand amongst the youth and gains their support. Secondly, such efforts ensure Top Shop‘plus' customer, of its commitment and support for fashion and so helps strengthen its position in the industry. . Understanding the Product Life Cycle Currently, Top Shop ‘plus' should grow rapidly in early stage of the PLC model whereby as an early adapter of the strategy of p roviding high rated fashion clothing at an affordable price, it has been working towards maintaining its product quality and adding more and more services to increase value for the customer. Additionally, with a high market demand and comparatively easier competition due to its current position, it is able to maintain low prices and yet enjoys profits and a positive brand image.As it matures, it would certainly have to look into defending its market share since a lot of new entrants and existing players may catch up on its strategy. The future would therefore also require a very strong distribution network meshed with a extraordinary level of innovation in its products as well as its services. 5. SWOT AnalysisStrength:Topshop has been held in the UK market for over decades, it has created strong consumer loyalty over the time through unique taste, fashion and trends through the variety level on its product.Customers are perceive Topshop as a premium brand, so the brand image is a ke y strength for the company. Extensive marketing strategy includes various dynamic advertisements which targeted male and female youth. The negotiation of better promotions through retailers strengthens demand and different sizes of product packaging suits consumer needs and buying patterns are considered to be some of its key marketing strengths. Being a high street market leader in the UK creates the feasibility of inorganic growth. Weakness:Topshop has not been able to compete against its competitors due to lack of marketing strategy in the times of growth.The competitive advantage it once used to brush away the rivals was given away. M&S and others have taken the lead since. Opportunities:There has been a growth in the fashion industry even in midst of economic downturn. For a group like Arcadia, it gives an opportunity to expand its chain of businesses. With Topshop's existing brand name, it seems to be the logical and potentially good strategy. Threats:Threat of possible new en trant in the Britain market may increase for Topshop among people's attitude of American capitalism over Britain.Some people could possibly opt to their own country brand upon perceived imitation could reflect on changing purchasing behaviour. The increasingly cheap but trendy and fashionable products manufactured under the name of retail giants such as Tesco, Sainsbury's and ASDA are a threat to substitution of Arcadia's Topshop. 6. Strategic AnalysisAn attempt by the management, and a very successful attempt too, the revamped image of this fashion brand was a step towards repositioning Top Shop and changing consumer perceptions about it.After successfully doing so, Top Shop has been constantly at work to keep up its image as The Fashion Leader in the retail industry making shopping more of an entertaining experience for its customers through various other facilities, activities and services on its stores and online. Its association with fashion industry celebrities such as Kate Mo ss herself fortifies its position with reference to its brand values that blend up-to-date styles and affordability together. The shortest possible lead time industry wide, it further gains competitive advantage over so many other brands.Additionally, when its sponsors fashion events and financially supports the careers of the upcoming talent, its gains the loyalty and support of the youth that would give it revenues on a long term basis. Its presence online as not only a promotional banner but as a proper sale point is an advance towards more success as that can certainly help it reaching to its target market in countries where it is not present at least as yet. This is also an effective way to reach out to the teenaged members of its target market whose lifestyles would rather allow them to make purchases online more conveniently.For the matter of understanding, very simply put, the Ansoff's Matrix suggests that Top Shop is currently following a product-market growth strategy by f ocusing on both product and market development at the same time. However, the management must bear in mind that to maintain the current image of a cutting-edge affordable fashion provider, it must ensure a smooth supply chain system by which it would be able to carry on bringing in the latest fashion faster than any of its competitors. Also, now with its own designs out in the market, innovation and innovation only would be the key to its success.Loyalty programs such as the membership cards and sponsorships are of course going to supplement all these efforts. 7. RecommendationsThe current popularity and success status of Top Shop does suggest that it has been upholding its image really well with its promotional activities. To ensure long term success however, it may take a few steps at this stage. For instance, now that its membership program is already in place, it may introduce a member-get-member program by which each member bringing in a new member with his reference is rewarde d and acclaimed. This would help it in building upon its present clientele and lso on the loyalty level of the existing customers. As pointed out earlier as well, it is important that Top Shop pays attention to its supply chain. Its entry into self designed brands is a beginning but if it gains some control over its suppliers through backward integration, the risk may be greatly reduced. Otherwise, if the competitors somehow gain on this respect, it may cause serious damage to Top Shop's business. Therefore it is imperative that it pays attention to the factors that are a source of advantage for it now and are necessary for ensuring its long terms success. . ConclusionAs of now, Top Shop seems to be following a strong product-market growth strategy by focusing on increasing its worldwide presence alongside an increase in its products and services. Such a strategy would certainly prove fruitful when the competition paces up and a particular market for Top Shop reaches maturity. Howev er, only if Top Shop focuses on continuous innovation and provision of maximum value to the customer, taking its position in the market would be rather difficult for the competing fashion retailers.Furthermore, the various in-store services that it provides also act as an indirect way of diversification while being a part of the company's promotional strategy as well. References Baker, M. , 2003, The Marketing Book, 5th Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   pp. 87-109 Kurtz, D. , 2009,Contemporary Marketing, 2009 Edition, USA, Neil Marquardt, pp. 363 Kotler, P. , Armstrong, G. , 2008 Principles of Marketing, 12th Edition,Pearson Education, pp. 338 Ferrel, O. , Hartline, M. , 2007, Marketing Strategy, 4th Edition, Thomson Higher Education pp. 282 David, F. 2007, Strategic Management,10th Edition, Pearson Education, pp. 196-210 Daniels, M. , May 4, 2009, Top Shop: Deconstructing the Retail Marketing Phenomenon Smith, A. , How Top Shop Changed Fashion, UK Available at http:// www. time. com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1625185,00. html [Accessed on Jan 19, 2010] Brand Republic, 2005, Super Brands Case Study: Top Shop Available at http://www. brandrepublic. com/news/474559/superbrands-case-studies-topshop/ [Accessed: Jan 23, 2010] Read more: http://www. americanessays. com/study-aids/free-essays/marketing/top-shop-marketing-plan. php#ixzz2A1VU1VWU

Badminton Essay Essay

Self-efficacy and social influences are two guiding principles in the study of sociology of sport. Self-efficacy is an individual’s personal estimate of confidence in his or her capability to accomplish a certain level of performance, whereas social influence occurs when others affect one’s emotions, opinions, behaviors and choices. These sociocultural factors are linked to Figueroa’s framework, which influence my participation in badminton. In this essay, the focus in on self-efficacy and social stigma-related socio-cultural factors, which are constituent elements in the sports socialization process and have influenced my active involvement in Badminton. The purpose of this assignment is to evaluate the impact that sociocultural influences have had on my decision to play on the Moreton Bay College badminton team. Professor Peter Figueroa developed a tool also known as Figueroa’s Framework, which investigates the issues surrounding access, equity and equality in sport and physical activity. It is structured over five different levels: individual, interpersonal, institutional, structural and cultural, these areas are used to investigate the ways in which inequities challenge the area of sport and physical activity. All five levels connect within each other and they all influence the shaping of the overall effect. They show the different functions that reinforce, create, remove and eliminate barriers and inequities within sport and physical activity. The level of Figeuroa’s Framework that affects my participation in badminton the greatest was the interpersonal level and individual level. The interpersonal level of Figueroa’s framework is used to investigate the relationships that affect whether an individual will develop a lifelong association with sport. Most individuals ar e influenced directly or indirectly by the people around them such as parents, peers, siblings, teachers, coaches, or sporting role models. In particular, one barrier that had an impact upon my participation in Badminton is self-efficacy. The theory of self-efficacy â€Å"was developed within the framework of social cognitive theory, which views individuals as proactive agents in the regulation of their cognition, motivation, actions,  and emotions.† When playing badminton I feel vulnerable to this problem of self-efficacy as my self-esteem is affected by my performance because I feel as if I am judged by how well I perform. As I have such high expectations to perform well in badminton, I am very critical and hard on myself. This leads to poor self-efficacy which forces me to believe I do not have the capability for success in Badminton. Someone with high self-efficacy is confident and motivated to work toward a learning goal and someone such as myself with low self-efficacy in badminton is not as motivated, which effects how much effort is put into a particular task. Self-efficacy is based on a social learning theory and is a construct that affects motivation and thus can promote or inhibit learning different skills. Consequently, as Allender et al. (2006) suggests, when an individual has limited confidence in their own ability to perform, enjoyment levels decline and inevitably, participation ceases. Pratt et al. (1999) found that perceived competence and sport ability beliefs had a â€Å"strong and direct impact on enjoyment†. As enjoyment is a precursor to ongoing participation, it is thus evident that self-efficacy is an important factor in my participation in Badminton. A study by McCarthy, Jones and Clark-Carter (2008) investigated the sources of enjoyment reported by youth sport participants and found that positive parental involvement was one of the most frequently reported results by young males and females. This implies that when children in sport perceive parental involvement as positive, they are more likely to enjoy their sporting experience. When we are young, our families influence us more than outsiders do. If your parents played sports, took you to sporting contests, helped you learn basic sport skills, and encouraged you to participate, chances are you gave sports a try. It has been proven that parental influence extends to the parents perception of the sports their children choose to participate in. That is, parents can transmit values through communicating their beliefs, acceptance, and support to their child’s participation in sport. Numerous studies have demonstrated the importance of parental interpretation, often showing th at too much parental feedback causes undue stress in young athletes and can cause them not to participate in certain sports, but the appropriate amounts of encouragement and support can increase enjoyment and longevity of the athletes’ involvement. Parental  interpretation is a powerful mechanism because it communicates expected and valued behaviors. Children internalize parental values and expectations therefore; children try to behave in ways that maximize their acceptance in the social setting. Thus, as my parents communicate that they do not value badminton as an exceptional sport, it is unlikely for me to participate in this sport. Also as my parents are not actively involved, nor intentionally provide sporting experiences for the sport of badminton; it is very unlikely that I was ever exposed to the sporting world of badminton as a child. In conclusion, self-efficacy and social influences are two of the central motives that have influenced my decision to play on the college badminton team. These sociocultural factors target the Interpersonal and Structural level of Figueroa’s framework. The influence of outsiders such as family and peers and my perceived capability at a particular time to perform the specified badminton skills has led me to the decision of not participating in the Moreton Bay College badminton team.

Clausewitz in the 21st Century

Clausewitz lived in a time where battles were fought in columns and lines, with soldiers using muskets and solid-shot cannon; when states were the exclusive actors in war; when technological change occurred over decades, if not centuries. What relevance could his work therefore have for the strategic problems of the 21st century? Introduction Clausewitz was not a cookbook writer. He was not looking for hard and fast rules for conducting war, which he eschews.Indeed, Clausewitzian theories elaborated at different periods of time are in close conjunction with the prevalent political, strategic, and military context, which is completely consonant with Clausewitz’s original conception of his own work: ‘Theory should be study, not doctrine [†¦] It is an analytical investigation leading to a close acquaintance with the subject; applied to experience – in our case, to military history – it leads to thorough familiarity with it.The closer it comes to that goal , the more it proceeds from the objective form of a science to a subjective form of a skill, the more effective it will prove in areas where the nature of the case admits no arbiter but talent. ’ ‘Theory is meant to educate the mind of the future commander, or, more accurately, to guide him in his self-education, not to accompany him to the battlefield. ’ If ‘the absurd difference between theory and practice’ is to be ended, then the correspondence between theory and practice implies the correspondence between the military commander and military thinker.Therefore, ‘self-education’ is important and useful to the military thinker too. He must not be bounded by a single theory of war but with the means to develop his own ideas (objective knowledge of war), fuelled by his talent (subjective capacity and application). The phenomena of war are more diverse than ever: from terrorism to inter-state war, from information war to riots in rural are as, from air strikes to intifada. Loose networks of limited wars have replaced the expectation of a nuclear apocalypse that characterized the Cold War.The differences and contradictions between the various conclusions and corresponding analyses regarding a strategic situation are but a reflection of the variety of military conflicts and the diversity of perspectives from which these conflicts are observed. These perspectives depend on time, culture, and political context. This phenomenon has been analyzed through the concept of strategic culture, that is ‘a distinctive and lasting set of beliefs, values and habits regarding the threat and use of force, which have their roots in such fundamental influences as the geographical setting, history and political culture’.States (e. g. Americans, Europeans, Chinese, Iranians, Indians etc. ) tend to have different perspectives on strategic problems, and the reason for these divergences probably goes beyond the defense of short-t erm interests. The extremely heterogeneous situation of the phenomena of war is analyzed from very different lenses of different strategic cultures, and hence makes states’ theories of war difficult to critique. Moreover, it is difficult to validate the doctrines that reflect these different theories by the use of examples of operational success or failure.Therefore, the need for a theory-of-theories of war remains valid. An overarching theory of war will take into account the influence of the interaction between the thinker and his object and can form the framework required to analyze the strategic debate. Clausewitz thus continues to remain relevant to analyze strategic problems of the 21st century as he had developed a theory about the theory of war. Research ApproachClausewitz recognized that Napoleon had overreached himself and the theoretical significance that a consistent, single military strategy could have different historical outcomes. In his own realization  œ evident in his note of 1827 – that any theory of war had to accommodate two sorts of war: war to overthrow the enemy; and war that is the basis of negotiation with him. Four fundamental contrasts are emphasized between the early and later Clausewitz because they remain central to contemporary debates about his work: (1) The primacy of military force versus the primacy of politics. 2) Existential warfare, or rather warfare related to one’s own identity, which engaged Clausewitz most strongly in his early years, as against the instrumental view of war that prevails in his later work. (3) The pursuit of military success through unlimited violence embodying ‘the principle of destruction’, versus the primacy of limited war and the limitation of violence in war, which loomed increasingly large in Clausewitz’s later years. (4) The primacy of defense as the stronger form of war, versus the promise of decisive results that was embodied in the seizure of of fensive initiative.It is not the intent or purpose of this paper to summarize Clausewitz’s works, given its scope, or to challenge the assertions of specific anti-Clausewitz writers such as Martin van Crevald, John Keegan or even Alvin and Heidi Toffler. The paper will instead highlight the seeming unbounded-ness of war (or armed conflict) and violence in the twenty-first century, and propose a strategy of containment of war and violence. This will relate later Clausewitz’s concepts of war and politics to our current reality. At the outset, I will provide an analysis of Clausewitz’s concept of the nature of war.Additionally, given the research question’s implication that Clausewitz should be marooned due to his lack of regard for ‘non-state actors’ and that his writings were in a time of slow ‘technological change’, I will also demonstrate that Clausewitz was well-aware of the influence of non-state actors and their ability to wa ge war; and his thoughts has continued relevance in our time of rapid technological changes. The Nature of War For Clausewitz, war was likened to a chameleon, allowing for changes to its appearance, but suggesting that its underlying nature remains unchanged.The character of war has certainly changed or morphed since his time. His critics argue that some changes can alter war’s very nature, and the nature of war today is radically different from the nature of war then, the age of Napoleon. In other words, the changes are more fundamental than can simply be accounted by shifting characteristics. The most recent English translation of the text, by Michael Howard and Peter Parat, renders its opening sentence thus: ‘War is more than a true chameleon that slightly adapts its characteristics to the given case. As a total phenomenon its dominant tendencies always make war a remarkable trinity. Clearly, a chameleon remains a chameleon whatever color it adopts for the time being . The crucial two words in the translation are ‘more than’, which imply that the circumstances of war can cause war to change more than its characteristics: War in other words is not like a chameleon. However, this translation did not capture the nuance of Clausewitz’s original: ‘Der Krieg ist also nicht nu rein wahres Chamaleon, weil er in jedem konkreten Fall seine Natur etwas andert, sondern er ist auch seinem Gesamterscheinungen nach, in Beziehung auf die in ihm herrschenden Tendenzen, eine wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit’.The implication here is that war may indeed be a chameleon, in that it changes its nature slightly in each individual case (its ‘character’), but not its nature in general, which is made up of the ‘trinity’ (addressed later). The translation thus reads: ‘War is not only a true chameleon, because it changes its nature slightly in each concrete case, but it also, in it is overall appearance, in relation to its inherent tendencies, a wondrous trinity’. The Primacy of Policy and the ‘Trinity’ War is an instrument of policy. ’ It ‘is simply a continuation of political intercourse, with the addition of other means’. Clausewtiz’s aphorism on the relationship between war and policy was now being dismissed not because war had no utility but because it is being waged for reasons that are not political or policy-driven. Critics argue that Clausewitz no longer have a place in the current strategic and security studies debates, where war was no longer the province of armed forces but also of non-state actors.The question was whether strategy, traditionally-defined, continues to be the best way of looking at what was, revealingly, no longer even called war, but armed conflict. Clausewitz understood a community as having its own political and social identity, even if it lacked statehood. Such an interpretation is consonant with Clausewitz’s own interest in wars before 1648, where he specifically linked the weaknesses of states to ‘exceptional manifestations in the art of war’.In his review of the history of war, he described ‘the semibarbarous Tartars, the republics of antiquity, the feudal lords and trading cities of the Middle Ages, eighteenth-century kings and the rulers and peoples of the nineteenth-century’ as ‘all conducting war in their own particular way, using different methods and pursuing different aims’. Despite this variability, Clausewitz stresses that war is all these cases remains a continuation of their policy by other means. In doing so, however, he suppresses the difference between the policies of states and the intentions of other communities which wage war.Therefore, it makes sense to supplement the primacy of policy as a general category with the affiliation of belligerents to a warring community. If the communities are states, we can speak of politics in th e modern sense; if they are ethnic, religious, or other communities, the value systems and goals of those communities (their ‘cultures’) are the more important factors. Based on this, we could replace Clausewitz’s meaning of state with the notion of it being that of the intentions, aims or values of the â€Å"warring community,† thus remaining much more faithful to his understanding of what a state embodies.Otherwise, we would implicitly express a modern understanding of Clausewitz’s concept of state. Clausewitz’s concepts of war (including armed conflict) and violence continue to be relevant so long as they are motivated by interests and policy and not hate, rage, boredom, the need for personal meaning and bonding. Die Wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit (The Wondrous Trinity) Clausewitz describes the trinity as composed of: (1) Primordial violence, hatred, and enmity, which are regarded as a blind natural force; (2) The play of chance and probabilit y, within which the creative spirit is free to roam; and 3) Its element of subordination, as an instrument of policy, which makes it subject to pure reason. Read in tandem with Clausewitz’s metaphor of war’s appearance from case to case as a chameleon, the trinity addresses the underlying forces that drive those changes. His message was that the relationship among these three elements was inherently unstable and shifting. To quote, ‘the task†¦is to keep our theory [of war] floating among these three tendencies’, and not try to set, or to count on any fixed relationship among them. Clausewitz and a New ContainmentThe Removal of the Inhibitions on War and a New Containment The twenty-first century appeared for a time an age defined by economics and, to a great extent, peace. These expectations quickly disappeared with the massacres and genocides in Africa, return of war to Europe, the 9/11 attacks, the Iraq and Afghanistan wars with their continuing, vi olent consequences and the Arab Springs. A struggle against a new totalitarianism of an Islamic type appears to have started, in which war and violence is commonly perceived as having an unavoidable role, and perceived to be becoming more ‘unbounded’ than ever before.Spatially, the terrorist are potentially ever present. Temporally, there seems no end-in-sight to their attacks. We face new types of threats such as the development of atomic bombs by ‘problematic’ states like Iran and North Korea and the possession of weapons of mass destruction by terrorists. The emergence of China as a potential superpower and perhaps great powers, like India, may lead to a fresh arms dynamic, with the possibility of a nuclear dimension. Violence seems to be going out of rational control, an image that the media has not hesitated to portray.There is a grave portent of mankind confronting a ‘coming anarchy’ of unknown dimensions. Hence, a new strategy of contain ment is needed. There is no longer one exclusive actor to be contained. A strategy for military containment of China similar to that used against the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s, will likely provoke all kinds of crises and even conflict, which such a strategy intends to avoid. Therefore, a different concept of containment is needed, one that is not perceived as a threat by China.The second difference is that current developments in the strategic environment display fundamentally conflicting tendencies. A strategy designed to counter only one of these conflicting tendencies may be problematic with respect to the others. Therefore, there is a need to strike a balance between competing possibilities. The third difference is that the traditional containment was perceived mainly as military deterrence of the Soviet Union. The new containment must combine traditional, military containment on one side and a range of opportunities for cooperation on the other.That is necessary with respect not only to China, but even to political Islam, in order to reduce the appeal of militant Islamic movements to millions of Muslim youths. In response to this unbounded-ness on war and violence, a conception for their containment is needed to provide a sustained and continual limitation through the ‘fencing in and encircling of the same forces’. The guiding perspective is that of a peaceful, or rather a pacified, global society. This perspective cannot be equated with â€Å"peace† since in order to reach this goal, non-peaceful, violent and even military means must in some cases be employed.Clausewitz’s Concept of Politics The defeat of Napoleon was the turning point of Clausewitz’s theory, where he faced the problem of dealing with strategies of limited war within the same conceptual framework as those leading to total defeat of the enemy. He realized that there are very different and even contrasting kinds of war and strategy. The conflicti ng tendencies in war, especially between ‘limited’ and ‘unlimited’ war compelled Clausewitz to conclude that the unifying general principle was politics. However, which kind of politics could serve to contain war and violence in the twenty-first century?Clausewitz’s notions of limited warfare have their foundations in the last parts of book VIII. They find some reflection in book I, chapter 2: ‘Be that as it may, we must always consider that with the conclusion of peace the purpose of the war has been achieved'; and further on: ‘Since war is not an act of senseless passion but is controlled by its political object, the value of this object must determine the sacrifices to be made for it in magnitude and also in duration. ’ In book VIII, he stated: ‘In this way the belligerent is again driven to adopt a middle course.He would act on the principle of using no greater force, and setting himself no greater military aim, than woul d be sufficient for the achievement of his political purpose. To turn this principle into practice, he must renounce the need for absolute success in each given case. ‘ It is a natural step to evolve from his strategy of limited warfare to one of the limitations of war and violence as the overarching purpose of political action in the twenty-first century. This perspective is still based on Clausewitz's statement that war is a continuation of politics by other means, while trying to actualize his concept of politics.Clausewitz describes war on the one hand as a continuation of politics, but on the other side as waged with other than political means. This implicit tension is the basis of the explicit contrast between the first and the third tendencies of Clausewitz’s trinity. Furthermore, one could argue that globalization and the ubiquity of information technologies have created a worldwide political space from which no one can escape, however much his actions might be derived, in their immediate motivation, from private interests or from the cultural practices of ethnic or tribal communities.Hence, the role of politics is intensified and reaction time within all three tendencies of Clausewitz’s trinity is reduced. Containing War and Violence in World Society The concept of containment is associated with the insight that we cannot expect in the foreseeable future to see fully non-violent societies or a non-violent world society. In addition, the aspiration to a world without conflicts as such fails to recognize that in the course of history conflicts and conflict solutions have frequently been necessary for human development.The main task confronting politics and social forces in the twenty-first century is the radical limitation, even diminishing of violence and war, so that non-violent structures can be sustained and the mechanisms of the ‘world of societies' can come to fruition. The overall political perspective on which the conce pt of the containing of war and violence in world society rests therefore consists of the following elements, the ‘pentagon of containing war and violence': 1) The ability to deter and discourage any opponent from fighting a large-scale war and to conduct precise military action as a last resort; (2) The possibility of using military force in order to limit and contain particularly excessive, large-scale violence which has the potential to destroy societies; (3) The willingness to counter phenomena which help to cause violence, such as poverty and oppression, especially in the economic sphere, and also the recognition of a pluralism of cultures and styles of life in world society; 4) The motivation to develop a culture of civil conflict management (concepts which can be summed up in the ‘civilizational hexagon', global governance, and democratic peace), based on the observation that the reduction of our action to military means has proved counterproductive and in the end will exceed our military capabilities; and (5) Restricting the possession and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, their delivery systems, as well as of small arms, because the proliferation of both is inherently destructive to social order. Antulio Echevarria writes that ‘the U. S.National Strategy for Combating Terrorism also includes an essential, but rather ambitious goal of diminishing the conditions that terrorists typically exploit, such as poverty, social and political disenfranchisement, and long-standing political, religious, and ethnic grievances; reducing these conditions requires, among other things, fostering political, social, and economic development, good governance, the rule of law, and consistent participation in the â€Å"war of ideas† Further important tasks include preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and of small arms.Normative criteria are required for the containment of war and violence in world society. Such cri teria combine political–moral considerations with aspects relevant to every state's interest in self-preservation. It requires political actors to recognize the advantages of self-limitation as part of their own enlightened self-interest. In anthropological terms, we can see the roots of the political in the openness and indeterminacy of the human power to act. In historical terms, we can follow Aristotle in seeing these roots in the way we are forced to limit ourselves once we become aware of the contingency of human actions.It follows from this that one of the decisive questions for future development is that of the possible self-interest of the United States, or regional powers, making conflict subject to legal norms, in civil conflict management, and binding military power into alliance systems. President Obama’s ‘Pivot to Asia’ necessitated the development of a military strategy for the potential, if highly improbable, conflict with China. Seeking a d ecisive victory or traditional military containment are not viable strategies in current and projected realities, as they probably only serve to escalate the situation.Also, the United States must select ways that minimize the probability of escalation to nuclear conflict simply because it does not understand China’s nuclear release process and there is no winner in a major nuclear exchange. The logic leads to the concept of Offshore Control. Operationally, it uses currently available means and restricted ways to deny China the use of the sea in a strategy of economic strangulation to exhaust China to the point it seeks war termination. Penetration into China is forbidden to reduce the possibility of escalation and to make war termination easier.Offshore Control seeks to allow the Chinese Communist Part to end the conflict in the same way China ended its conflicts with India, the UN (in Korea), the Soviet Union and the Vietnamese. It allows China to declare it â€Å"taught t he enemy a lesson† and thus end the conflict. The progressive limitation of war and violence indefinitely can be an end to itself in the realization of a basically peaceful global policy. The enduring and progressive containment of war and violence is therefore necessary for self-preservation of states, even their survival, and for the civility of individual societies and world society.Conclusion Clausewitz, in his note of 1827, recognized the need to rework the whole of On War according to his new insight, the distinction between limited war and war whose aim is to overthrow the enemy and render him powerless. However, he was not always clear in his thoughts especially in his early writings and even up to 1827. For example, there is a lack of clarity on the discourse at the beginning of book I, chapter 1, of the three interactions that push war to the extreme, despite the fact that these sections were presumably written after the note of 1827.It can be said that for the purpo se of analyzing and studying warfare, both the early and later Clausewitz is of great importance and value. However, for political and military action of our time, perhaps only the later Clausewitz needs serve as an important basis. As Clausewitz himself emphasized at the end of his discussion of the trinity, ‘at any rate, the preliminary concept of war casts a first ray of light on the basic structure of theory, and enables us to make an initial differentiation and identification of its major components. Thinking about contemporary and future warfare with, and sometimes beyond, Clausewitz can still be the best way to begin. Bibliography 1. Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Clausewitz and a New Containment. In S. Hew, ; H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 283-307). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 2. Andreas, H. -R. , ; Antulio , E. (2007, December 27). Clausewitz in the Twenty First-Century: Primacy of Policy and a New Containment. From World Secur ity Network: http://www. worldsecuritynetwork. com/showArticle3. cfm? article_id=14985 3. Antulio, E. (1995-1996, Winter).War, Politics and the RMA: The Legacy of Clausewitz. Joint Force Quarterly, pp. 76-80. 4. Antulio, E. I. (2003). Globalization and the Clausewitzian Nature of War. The European Legacy, 8/3, pp. 317-32. 5. Clausewitz, C. v. (1976). On War. In H. Michael, P. Peter, H. Michael, ; P. Peter (Eds. ). New Jersey: Princeton. 6. Durieux, B. (2009). Clausewitz and the Two Temptations of Modern Strategic Thinking. In S. Hew, ; H. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 251- 265). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 7. Hammes, T. (2012, Spring). Offshore Control: A Proposed Strategy. Infinity Journal, 2(2), pp. 0-14. 8. Hew, S. , ; Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Introduction. In S. Hew, ; H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 1-13). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 9. Antulio, E. (2009). Clausewitz and the Nature of the Wa r on Terror. In S. Hew, ; H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 196-218). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 10. Ken, B. , ; R. , T. (1999). Strategic Cultures in the Asia-Pacific Region. London. 11. Metz, S. (1994). Clausewitz Homepage. From A Wake for Clausewitz: Toward a Philosophy of 21st-Century Warfare: http://www. lausewitz. com/readings/Metz. htm 12. Sumida, J. (2009). On Defence as the Stronger Form of War. In S. Hew, ; H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 164-181). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Durieux, B. (2009). Clausewitz and the Two Temptations of Modern Strategic Thinking. In S. Hew, & H. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 251- 265). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 2 ]. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. and ed. Michael Howard and Pet er Parat (Princeton, NJ, 1976), II, 2, p. 141. 3 ]. Ibid. II, 2, p. 141. [ 4 ]. Ibid. II, 2, p. 142. [ 5 ]. Ken, B. , & R. , T. (1999). Strategic Cultures in the Asia-Pacific Region. London. [ 6 ]. Durieux, B. (2009). Clausewitz and the Two Temptations of Modern Strategic Thinking. In S. Hew, & H. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 251- 265). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 7 ]. The same principles and strategies that were the decisive foundation of Napoleon’s initial successes at Jena and Auerstedt proved inadequate in the special situation of the Russian campaign and eventually contributed to his final defeat at Waterloo. 8 ]. Clausewitz or Sun Tzu – Paradigms of warfare for the 21st century written by: Andreas Herberg-Rothe, 13-Dec-06. WorldSecurityNetwork. com – WorldSecurityNetwork. com. http://www. worldsecuritynetwork. com/printArticle3. cfm? article_id=13757 [ 9 ]. On War, I, 1,  §28, P. 89. [ 10 ]. Hew, S. , & Andrea s, H. -R. (2009). Introduction. In S. Hew, & H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 1-13). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 11 ]. Vom Kriege, ed. Werner Hahlweg (19th edn, Bonn, 1980), 1, 1,  §28, pp. 212-213. 12 ]. On War, VIII, 6B, p. 610. [ 13 ]. Ibid. p. 605. The phrase ‘with the addition of other means’ is deliberately used by Howard and Paret as they wanted to make it clear that war in itself does not suspend political intercourse or change it into something entirely different. Essentially, the intercourse continues, irrespective of the means it employs. The main lines along which military events progress, and to which they are restricted, are political lines that continues throughout war into the subsequent peace. It could not be otherwise.Political relations between peoples and between their governments do not stop when diplomatic notes are no longer exchanged. [ 14 ]. The German word Politik covers both policy and politics . Clausewitz did mean different things at different points. Sometimes the context suggests that he has foreign policy in mind, at others he highlights the social upheaval of the French Revolution and its consequence for warfare. [ 15 ]. Antulio Echevarria, ‘War, Politics and the RMA: The Legacy of Clausewitz’, Joint Force Quarterly, 10 (winter 1995-6), 76-80. [ 16 ]. On War, VIII, 3B, p. 589 [ 17 ]. Ibid. p. 586. 18 ]. Hew, S. , & Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Primacy of Policy and Trinity in Clausewitz’s Thought. In S. Hew, & H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 74-90). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. No modern translator is prepared to render wunderliche in the military context as â€Å"wonderful† or â€Å"wonderous†. Howard and Paret in 1976 used ‘remarkable’, which was a throwaway word of no particular significance. This was changed to ‘paradoxical’ in the 1984 edition, but this word seem s to have no relationship to wunderliche and carries inappropriately negative connotations. 19 ]. On War, I, 1,  §28. [ 20 ]. Ibid. Clausewitz’s description of the trinity followed after the metaphor of war as a chameleon. [ 21 ]. Ibid. [ 22 ]. George Kennan formulated his original vision of containment more than sixty years ago. Although altered in its application by various administrations in the United States, it has in practice been incorporated within the concept and politics of common security, which in turn has itself been the essential complement to purely military containment. [ 23 ]. In comparison to the Cold War. [ 24 ].Between globalization on the one hand, and local struggles for identity and regional advantages and interests on the other; between high-tech wars and combat with ‘knives and machetes’ or attacks by suicide bombers between symmetrical and asymmetrical warfare; between wars over the ‘world order’, with the re-politicizatio n and re-ideologization, between imperial-hegemonic dominance of the only superpower and the formation of new regional power centers; between international organized crime and the institutionalization of regional and global communities; and between increasing violations of international law and human rights on one side and their expansion on the other. [ 25 ]. Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Clausewitz and a New Containment. In S. Hew, & H. -R. Andreas (Eds. , Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 283-307). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 26 ]. Clausewitz discussed unlimited and limited war in terms that supported his conception of the defense as the stronger form of war. The central issue in both cases of war was the will of the combatants. Unlimited war occurred when the attacker was determined to destroy the political independence of the defender through battle if necessary, and the defender no less determined to preserve its political independence. Equivalence in the stre ngth of will did not, however, mean the outcome would be determined by the balance of military forces and the fortunes of war.Even catastrophic military defeat at the hands of a militarily superior attacker, Clausewitz believed, would not produce a decision if the defender had the will to preserve what remained of his regular military forces by retreat even to the point of abandonment of all national territory, and to resort to armed popular support against the invader in spite of its potential to promote anarchy. Limited war meant a situation in which the attacker's objectives did not involve the destruction of the political independence of the defender, and the defender's stake in the outcome was thus not one of survival. (Sumida, 2009) [ 27 ]. Andreas Herberg-Rothe had elaborated this interpretation in Andreas Herberg-Rothe, Das Ratsel Clausewitz. Politische Theorie des Krieges im WIderstreit (Munich, 2001), 79-145, and in the English edition of the same book, Clausewitz’s Puzzle (Oxford, 2007).We can find this conclusion in the trinity; within the note of 1827, in which Clausewitz mentioned both aspects as guiding principles for reworking the whole text; in book I, chapter 2; and in most parts of book VIII of On War, [ 28 ]. On War, I, 2, pp. 91-2. [ 29 ]. Ibid. VIII, 3B, p. 585. [ 30 ]. It can be demonstrated that, due to systematic reasons but also with the respect to historical experience, trying to suspend this tension for the sake of the primacy of one of the two sides always leads to a primacy of the military means, of warfare and violence; see Beatrice Heuser, Reading Clausewitz (London, 2002). [ 31 ]. Antulio, E. I. (2003). Globalization and the Clausewitzian Nature of War. The European Legacy, 8/3, pp. 317-32. [ 32 ].Ernst Otto Czempiel, Weltpolitik im Umbruch. Die Pax Americana, der Terrorisinus und die Zukunft der interuationalen Bezh. ‘hungen (Munchen, 2002). [ 33 ]. Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Clausewitz and a New Containment. In S. H ew, & H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 283-307). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 34 ]. Antulio, E. (2009). Clausewitz and the Nature of the War on Terror. In S. Hew, & H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 196-218). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 35 ]. Hammes, T. (2012, Spring). Offshore Control: A Proposed Strategy. Infinity Journal, 2(2), pp. 10-14. [ 36 ]. Ibid. I, 1,  §28, p. 89.

If accounting policies only determine how past transactions are Essay - 1

If accounting policies only determine how past transactions are recorded and reflected in financial reports, how can the choice - Essay Example Discussion In 1977, the Financial Accounting Standards Board proposed to change the accounting methods used in the oil industry from full costing (FC) to successful efforts (SE). The FSAB through the Exposure Draft received great opposition from oil companies because the change in accounting method could adversely reduce the market share price and earnings at the same time. From an analysis carried out, 64% of the oil companies will have their earnings decreasing by 5% or more and 74% of the companies surveyed could have a 5% or more decrease in the market share price if they changed the accounting method from full costing to successful efforts (Zeff, 1979). On average, it was established that the industry’s market share price and earnings decreased by 4.5% in three days after the release of the Exposure Draft (Lev, 1979). The financial accounting standards board put forward two method used to account for oil and gas exploration cost. These include the full costing method and the successful efforts method. The two methods differ in the way they treat exploration costs (Myers, 1979). Successful Efforts method Under this method, the costs are incurred in unsuccessful exploration are charged as current expenses and therefore not carried forward as assets. Under the SE method, costs are capitalized by collection if the costs directly end up in the development of proved reserves. Costs not resulting in proved reserves are expensed as are incurred or as a determination of verified reserves is made. Simply, within a cost group, wells that are explored and found dry are expensed and wells that are successfully explored and developed are capitalized (Lev, 1979). Full Costing Method The FC method, on the other hand, treats all costs that oil companies incurred in exploration oil and gas reserves as assets subject to a limitation that the total amount carried forward does not exceed the approximated value of the reserves, anywhere the well is located either within the country or across any continent (Lev, 1979). Under the full cost method, all charges of discovering and evolving wells are capitalized regardless of the fact that they are proven or not. After which, depletion is done using the units of production technique where the all the proven oil and gas reserves are taken into consideration (Myers, 1979). Fundamentally, all of the costs of developing gas and oil reserves, both successful and unsuccessful are depleted as output units which are recovered from the successful wells (Myers, 1979). This method is permitted by the Securities Exchange Commission but not favored by the FASB and is proposed as an inducement for the investigation of further oil and gas assets since charges related to failed exploration can be expensed over time rather than as incurred (Myers, 1979). The Securities Exchange Commission was in charge of regulating the oil industry as per the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975. Shortly before this act, FASB had expressed interest of setting accounting standard to be used in the oil industry. For this reason, SEC relied on FASB for setting accounting standard for the oil industry. FASB then came up with the Exposure Draft the proposed to change the accounting method used in the industry (Lev, 1979). According to FASB, the full costing method was inappropriate as it did not reflect uniformity in the oil indust

Strategic Management Analysis assignement Assignment

Strategic Management Analysis assignement - Assignment Example Unique Resources / Capabilities 25 10.0 Sustainable Competitive Advantage 26 11.0 Summary of the Strengths and Weaknesses 27 Task C 28 12.0 Strategic Direction 28 12.1 Market Penetration 29 12.2 Product Development 29 12.3 Market Development 29 12.4 Diversification 30 13.0 Strategic Fit 30 14.0 Summary on Strategic Fit 33 References 34 1.0 Introduction The aim of the study has been to conduct a strategic analysis of an UK based airline company offering package holiday. Therefore, in this context, the company that has been chosen for the study is British Airways. British Airways is based in the UK and is the biggest scheduled airline that runs internationally (Scribd, 2009). It offers flight services of low fares for customers availing its holiday packages and carries the passengers to and from the centrally located airports. The company also offers holiday packages that consist of super value packages for hotels as well (The Telegraph, 2011). A person can enjoy both the flight facili ty as well as hotel facility and thus visit numerous destinations with British Airways which can save time as well as cost (British Airways, n.d.). Tour operators tend to put the numerous elements of the holidays and thus sell them as a package. The packages are sold either to the public directly or through travel agents. There are innumerable tour operators offering enormous ranges of the holidays as well as destinations (Holiday Bargains, n.d.). The term ‘package’ generally is defined as a set combination of two services at minimum. They must be offered at inclusive prices and must include components such as transports, accommodations or other services that are important for the tourists. The holiday market of the UK seems to be quite competitive and the industry tends to operate at quite low margins (BIS Department for Business Innovation & Skills, n.d.). The main rationale for choosing the company is that it is the leader in airline industry that offers both the fli ght as well as the holiday package services. The company chosen will assist in comprehending the trends of the airline company offering the package holiday in the UK. Task A 2.0 PESTEL Analysis The PESTEL analysis tends to classify the environmental components into political, socio cultural, economical, technological, environmental as well as legal. It assists in comprehending the main drivers leading to change as well as the external factors affecting an organization. Political Factors The political environment of the UK is quite stable. However, the terror attack had a major impact upon the package holiday industry of the UK. Such terror attacks led to tight security as well as strict immigration laws. The package holiday industry suffers in the long-term if such turmoil keeps on continuing. This tends to affect the perception of the tourists. In recent times, strikes called by the staffs of the British Airways had an impact upon its holiday business. In future, such scenario can occur which might have an impact